The Mexican War

The Mexican War The Mexican War between the United States and Mexico began with a Mexican attack on American troops along the southern border of Texas on Apr. 25, 1846. Fighting ended when U.S. Gen. Winfield Scott occupied Mexico City on Sept. 14, 1847; a few months later a peace treaty was signed (Feb. 2, 1848) at Guadalupe Hidalgo. In addition to recognizing the U.S. annexation of Texas defeated Mexico ceded California and, New Mexico to the United States.At the time of the war, Mexico had a highly unstable government. The federal constitution of 1824 had been abolished in 1835 and replaced by a centralized dictatorship. Two diametrically opposed factions had rose: the Federalists, who supported a constitutional democracy; and the Centralists, who supported an autocratic government under a monarch or dictator. Various clashing parties of Centralists were in control of the government from 1835 to December 1844. During that time numerous rebellions and insurgencies occurred within Mexican territory, including the temporary disaffection of California and the Texas Revolution, which resulted in the independence of Texas.English: Battle of Veracruz during the Mexican-Ame...The Mexican war between the U.S. and Mexico was started because of a Mexican attack on American troops along the southern border of Texas on April 25, 1846. After Winfield Scott occupied Mexico City on September 14,1847, a few months later a peace treaty was signed between Mexico and the U.S. A dictatorial Centralist government in Mexico began the war because of the U.S. annexation (1845) of Texas, which Mexico continued to claim despite the establishment of the independent republic of Texas 10 years before. Another possible cause for the war may be that the U.S. brought on the war by annexing Texas and, just to make Mexico angry, by stationing an army at the mouth of the Rio Grande.International borders have always...

Role of Kapos in Nazi Concentration Camps

Role of Kapos in Nazi Concentration Camps Kapos, called Funktionshftling by the SS, were prisoners who collaborated with the Nazis to serve in leadership or administrative roles over others interned in the same Nazi concentration camp. How Nazis Used Kapos The vast system of Nazi concentration camps in occupied Europe was under the control of the SS (Schutzstaffel). While there were many SS who staffed the camps, their ranks were supplemented with local auxiliary troops and prisoners. Prisoners that were chosen to be in these higher positions served in the role of Kapos. The origin of the term â€Å"Kapo† is not definitive.  Some historians believe it was directly transferred from the Italian word â€Å"capo† for â€Å"boss,† while others point to more indirect roots in both German and French.  In the Nazi concentration camps, the term Kapo was first used at Dachau from which it spread to the other camps. Regardless of the origin, Kapos played a vital role in the Nazi camp system as a large number of prisoners within the system required constant oversight.  Most Kapos were put in charge of a prisoner work gang, called Kommando. It was the Kapos job to brutally force prisoners to do forced labor, despite the prisoners being sick and starving. Facing prisoner against prisoner served two goals for the SS: it allowed them to meet a labor need while simultaneously furthering tensions between various groups of prisoners. Cruelty Kapos were, in many instances, even crueler than the SS themselves.  Because their tenuous position depended on the satisfaction of the SS, many Kapos took extreme measures against their fellow prisoners to maintain their privileged positions. Pulling most Kapos from the pool of prisoners interned for violent criminal behavior also allowed this cruelty to flourish.  While there were Kapos whose original internment was for asocial, political, or racial purposes (such as Jews), the vast majority of Kapos were criminal internees. Survivor memoirs and recollections relate varying experiences with Kapos.  A select few, such as Primo Levi  and Victor Frankl, credit a certain Kapo with ensuring their survival or helping them get slightly better treatment; while others, such as Elie Wiesel, share a far more common experience of cruelty.   Early in Wiesel’s camp experience at Auschwitz, he encounters, Idek, a cruel Kapo. Wiesel relates in Night: One day when Idek was venting his fury, I happened to cross his path. He threw himself on me like a wild beast, beating me in the chest, on my head, throwing me to the ground and picking me up again, crushing me with ever more violent blows, until I was covered in blood. As I bit my lips in order not to howl with pain, he must have mistaken my silence for defiance and so he continued to hit me harder and harder.  Abruptly, he calmed down and sent me back to work as if nothing had happened. In his book,  Mans Search for Meaning,  Frankl also tells of a Kapo known simply as The Murderous Capo. Kapos Had Privileges The privileges of being a Kapo varied from camp to camp but almost always resulted in better living conditions and a reduction in physical labor.   In the larger camps, such as Auschwitz, Kapos received separate rooms within the communal barracks, which they would often share with a self-selected assistant.   Kapos also received better clothing, better rations, and the ability to supervise labor rather than actively participate in it.  Kapos were sometimes able to use their positions to also procure special items within the camp system such as cigarettes, special foods, and alcohol.   A prisoner’s ability to please the Kapo or establish a rare rapport with him/her could, in many instances, meant the difference between life and death. Levels of Kapos In the larger camps, there were several different levels within the â€Å"Kapo† designation.  Some of the titles deemed as Kapos included: Lagerltester (camp leader): Within the various sections of large camps such as Auschwitz-Birkenau, the Lagerltester oversaw the entire section and served largely in administrative roles.  This was the highest of all prisoner positions and came with the most privileges.Blockltester (block leader): A position that was common in most camps, the Blockltester was responsible for the administration and discipline of an entire barracks.  This position customarily afforded its holder with a private room (or one shared with an assistant) and better rations.Stubenlteste (section leader): Oversaw portions of large barracks such as those in Auschwitz I and reported to the Blockltester about specific needs related to the barrack’s prisoners. At Liberation At the time of liberation, some Kapos were beaten and killed by the fellow prisoners that they had spent months or years tormenting, but in most cases, Kapos moved on with their lives in a similar fashion to other victims of Nazi persecution.   A few found themselves on trial in post-war West Germany as part of the U.S. military trials held there, but this was the exception, not the norm.  In one of the Auschwitz trials of the 1960s, two Kapos were found guilty of murder and cruelty and sentenced to life in prison. Others were tried in East Germany and Poland but without much success.  The only known court-sanctioned executions of Kapos occurred in immediate post-war trials in Poland, where five of seven men convicted for their roles as Kapos had their death sentences carried out. Ultimately, historians and psychiatrists are still exploring the role of Kapos as more information becomes available through recently released archives from the East. Their role as prisoner functionaries within the Nazi concentration camp system was vital to its success but this role, like many in the Third Reich, is not without its complexities.   Kapos are viewed as both opportunists and survivalists, and their complete history may never be known.